Open Access
Energy as an indicator of modernization in Latin America, 1890-1925
(Wiley, 2010) Rubio Varas, María del Mar; Yáñez, César; Folchi, Mauricio; Carreras, Albert; Economía; Ekonomia
In the absence of comparable macroeconomic indicators for most of the Latin American economies before the 1930s, the apparent consumption of energy is used in this paper as a proxy of the degree of modernization of Latin America and the Caribbean. This paper presents an estimate of the apparent consumption per head of modern energies (coal, petroleum, and hydroelectricity) for 30 countries of the region, 1890 to 1925. As a result, it provides the basis for a quantitative comparative analysis of modernization performance beyond the few countries for which historical national accounts are available in Latin America.
Open Access
Freshwater for cooling needs: a long-run approach to the nuclear water footprint in Spain
(Elsevier, 2017) Sesma Martín, Diego; Rubio Varas, María del Mar; Ekonomia; Institute for Advanced Research in Business and Economics - INARBE; Economía
From the invention of the steam engine to the present, water has represented a significant input to the energy system, although this has been mostly ignored in the literature. In Spain, the most arid country in Europe, studies about water footprint typically just consider domestic, agricultural and industrial water uses, but water requirements for the electricity sector are omitted despite our dependence on thermal power. It has been demonstrated that for each available cooling technology, nuclear needs and consumption of water tend to be larger per MWh generated. We calculate a first approximation to the Spanish nuclear water footprint from 1969 to 2015. Our results show that while water consumed by Spanish nuclear power plants are around 3 m3 per capita/year, water withdrawals per capita/year are around 70 m3. Moreover, our analysis allows extracting conclusions focusing on a River Basins approach. What is the water impact of our nuclear power plants? Will water limit our energy future? These are some of the issues at stake.
Open Access
The Energy Mix Concentration Index (EMCI): methodological considerations for implementation
(Elsevier B.V., 2019) Rubio Varas, María del Mar; Muñoz Delgado, Beatriz; Institute for Advanced Research in Business and Economics - INARBE
The Energy Mix Concentration Index (EMCI)is a quantitative indicator of concentration of the energy mix based upon the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index. We use the EMCI to compare the evolution of the diversification (versus concentration)of energy mixes in the long-term in order to reveal the transformations of the energy structures which determine energy transitions. In this methodological paper we make explicit how to aggregate the energy sources in order to calculate the EMCI, including questions of detail such us the level of aggregation and the transformation of primary electricity to add it up to total consumption. We present alternative figures that illustrate some additional aspects of the relation of the EMCI to total consumption, consumption per capita and energy annual growth. We also show the sensitivity of the indicator to alternative specifications (with and without pre-modern energy sources)and alternative data sets, proving its robustness. Indicate how to aggregate energy carriers in the calculation of a quantitative index of concentration of the energy mix. Compare alternative specifications (with or without pre-modern energy carriers). EMCI focus on the major energy sources in the energy systems.
Open Access
Agua dulce para refrigeración: una visión a largo plazo de la huella hídrica de las centrales nucleares en España
(2016) Sesma Martín, Diego; Rubio Varas, María del Mar; Ekonomia; Institute for Advanced Research in Business and Economics - INARBE; Economía
Objectives: our research pioneers a first approximation to the water footprint of the Spanish nuclear power plants operating with freshwater from 1969 to the present. Our aim is to calculate the consumptive use of water (i.e. the amount of water evaporated, transpired, or incorporated in energy production) for Spanish nuclear power plants, and the amounts of water withdrawals required for running nuclear power plants. To sum up, what is the water impact of our nuclear power plants? Will water limit our energy future? Should water be considered when planning the electricity mix in the future? These are some of the questions to solve.
Open Access
Learning by doing: the first Spanish nuclear power plant
(Cambridge University Press, 2018) Torre Campo, Joseba de la; Rubio Varas, María del Mar; Economía; Ekonomia
In the nuclear sector, turnkey projects can be considered an investment in obtaining information through “learning by doing” to capture rents from the next generation of reactors. As the first U.S. turnkey export project, the first Spanish nuclear power plant served that purpose and paved the way to the subsequent growth of the nuclear sector, for both Spanish and U.S. firms. Making use of archival material, we analyse the networks created by the government, experts, and business leaders, which sought to obtain, accumulate, and learn from the scarce and conflicting information about atomic technology that was available at the time. We also discern how firms on both sides of the Atlantic acquired and perfected the specific capabilities required to build a commercial nuclear reactor.
Open Access
The weak data on the water–energy nexus in Spain
(IWA Publishing, 2019) Sesma Martín, Diego; Rubio Varas, María del Mar; Ekonomia; Institute for Advanced Research in Business and Economics - INARBE; Economía
This paper focuses on the fact that the water–energy nexus remains an irrelevant issue on the energy policy agenda and on the priorities of the energy leaders in Spain. This is a striking fact given that this takes place in the most arid country in Europe, where almost two-thirds of electricity generation would have to be halted in the absence of an adequate water supply. We contend that part of the explanation may lie in the lack of official statistics and inconsistent sources of information on the water–energy nexus in Spain. To illustrate this point, we provide examples of the uneven data available for one of the most intensive freshwater users in the thermoelectric sector in Spain: nuclear power plants. Our research demonstrates the need for improved indicators as policy instruments in the water–energy nexus in Spain since it is impossible to improve what cannot be measured.
Open Access
El Estado y el desarrollo de la energía nuclear en España, c. 1950-1985
(Asociación Española de Historia Económica (AEHE), 2014) Torre Campo, Joseba de la; Rubio Varas, María del Mar; Economía; Ekonomia
Tres décadas después de la decisión gubernamental de paralizar y replantear el programa atómico español que se había diseñado en los años del desarrollismo, la controversia permanece abierta. Pese a su relevancia, la historiografía económica de la energía nuclear está tan sólo en sus inicios. Este trabajo analiza el papel que el Estado jugó para conseguir que uno de los países más pobres de Europa occidental entrara en el exclusivo club de países productores de esa energía. Proponemos una nueva periodización del avance de la energía nuclear en España basada en la evolución político‐económica del sector que va más allá de los estadios tecnológicos que se describen en la literatura.
Open Access
La financiación exterior del desarrollo industrial español a través del IEME
(Banco de España, 2015) Rubio Varas, María del Mar; Torre Campo, Joseba de la; Economía; Ekonomia
El objetivo central del trabajo es, en primer lugar, reconstruir las grandes cifras del capital exterior que contribuyó a la financiación del desarrollo industrial de España entre 1950 y 1982; y, en segundo lugar, estudiar la vertiente financiera de las inversiones que las grandes empresas nacionales y extranjeras practicaron en dos sectores estratégicos a lo largo de ese período: el sector eléctrico y la industria del automóvil.
Open Access
"Spain-Eximbank's billion dollar client": the role of the us financing the Spanish nuclear program
(Asociación Española de Historia Económica (AEHE), 2016) Rubio Varas, María del Mar; Torre Campo, Joseba de la; Economía; Ekonomia
En 1972, Henry Kearns, presidente y director del Export-Import Bank de los Estados Unidos (Eximbank), visitó la Cámara Oficial de Comercio e Industria de Madrid. El título de su discurso'España – el cliente del billón de dólares del Eximbank' daba cuenta del importante papel que el banco público estadounidense jugaba en la financiación de las compras españolas de bienes de equipo, como aviones, fábricas de acero, estaciones satelitales y plantas eléctricas, entre otros. La concentración en nuevas instalaciones de generación eléctrica convertía a España en aquel momento en el país con el más rápido desarrollo de energía nuclear de Europa, y el mayor comprador de tecnología nuclear de los EE.UU. mano a mano con Japón. Ninguna otra nación se acercó a estos dos en ese sentido. Utilizando materiales de archivo del Eximbank y la Administración Nacional de Archivos y Registro de los Estados Unidos (NARA), exploramos las facilidades financieras que los EE.UU. proporcionaron al programa nuclear español, el tamaño de los créditos autorizados y su evolución en el tiempo. Se hace evidente que el bombeo de dinero público norteamericano para la exportación de las instalaciones nucleares en el mundo explica en gran medida el cuasimonopolio del mercado nuclear mundial que los EE.UU. tuvieron antes de la década de 1980, y en particular su importancia para convertir a España en uno de los pioneros y líder en la adopción de la tecnología nuclear.
Open Access
Energy and economic growth: the stylized facts
(IAEE, 2016) Csereklyei, Zsuzsanna; Rubio Varas, María del Mar; Stern, David I.; Economía; Ekonomia
We summarize what we know about energy and economic growth in a set of stylized facts. We combine analysis of a panel data set of 99 countries from 1971 to 2010 with analysis of some longer run historical data. Our key result is that over the last 40 years there has been a stable cross-sectional relationship between per capita energy use and income per capita with an elasticity of energy use with respect to income of less than unity. This implies that energy intensity has tended to decrease in countries that have become richer but not in others. We also find that over the last two centuries there has been convergence in energy intensity towards the current distribution, per capita energy use has tended to rise and energy quality to increase, and, though evidence is limited, the cost share of energy has declined.