Open Access
Impact of micro-cycles on the lifetime of lithium-ion batteries - EIS analysis
(IEEE, 2024-07-30) Nováková, Katerina; Berrueta Irigoyen, Alberto; Soto Cabria, Adrián; Sanchis Gúrpide, Pablo; Ursúa Rubio, Alfredo; Ingeniería Eléctrica, Electrónica y de Comunicación; Ingeniaritza Elektrikoa, Elektronikoa eta Telekomunikazio Ingeniaritza; Institute of Smart Cities - ISC; Gobierno de Navarra / Nafarroako Gobernua
Experimental studies of lithium-ion batteries are very often based only on deep charge and discharge cycles. However, these test profiles do not fully reflect the actual operation of the battery in an electric vehicle or in stationary applications, where the battery is not only loaded during the main charging and discharging profiles, but it is also stressed by the current throughput caused by renewable power fluctuations or by auxiliary services. These cycles, which are superimposed to the main charge and discharge processes and have a depth of discharge not exceeding 2%, are called micro-cycles. Although there are several simulation studies that attempt to capture this issue, there is still no comprehensive experimental study that has the phenomena that occur during micro-cycling. This paper presents an experimental analysis of micro-cycles, providing a detailed view of the different processes taking place in the battery during aging, by means of a detailed analysis of the results from electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). By studying the single electrochemical processes in detail, this paper explains the benefits of micro-cycling in terms of extending the lifetime of the battery.
Open Access
Experimental assessment of first- and second-life electric vehicle batteries: performance, capacity dispersion, and aging
(IEEE, 2021) Braco Sola, Elisa; San Martín Biurrun, Idoia; Berrueta Irigoyen, Alberto; Sanchis Gúrpide, Pablo; Ursúa Rubio, Alfredo; Ingeniaritza Elektrikoa, Elektronikoaren eta Telekomunikazio Ingeniaritzaren; Institute of Smart Cities - ISC; Ingeniería Eléctrica, Electrónica y de Comunicación; Universidad Pública de Navarra / Nafarroako Unibertsitate Publikoa; Gobierno de Navarra / Nafarroako Gobernua
Nowadays, the reuse of electric vehicle batteries is considered to be a feasible alternative to recycling, as it allows them to benefit from their remaining energy capacity and to enlarge their lifetime. Stationary applications, such as self-consumption or off-grid systems support, are examples of second-life (SL) uses for retired batteries. However, reused modules that compose these batteries have heterogeneous properties, which limit their performance. This article aims to assess the influence of degradation in modules from electric vehicles, covering three main aspects: performance, capacity dispersion, and extended SL behavior. First, a complete characterization of new and reused modules is carried out, considering three temperatures and three discharge rates. In the second stage, intra- and intermodule capacity dispersions are evaluated with new and reused samples. Finally, the behavior during SL is also analyzed, through an accelerated cycling test so that the evolution of capacity and dispersion are assessed. Experimental results show that the performance of reused modules is especially undermined at low temperatures and high current rates, as well as in advanced stages of aging. The intramodule dispersion is found to be similar in reused and new samples, while the intermodule differences are nearly four times greater in SL.
Open Access
Design and on-field validation of an embedded system for monitoring second-life electric vehicle lithium-ion batteries
(MDPI, 2022) Castillo Martínez, Diego Hilario; Rodríguez Rodríguez, Adolfo Josué; Soto Cabria, Adrián; Berrueta Irigoyen, Alberto; Vargas Requena, Dávid Tomás; Matías Maestro, Ignacio; Sanchis Gúrpide, Pablo; Ursúa Rubio, Alfredo; Rodríguez Rodríguez, Wenceslao Eduardo; Ingeniaritza Elektrikoa, Elektronikoaren eta Telekomunikazio Ingeniaritzaren; Institute of Smart Cities - ISC; Ingeniería Eléctrica, Electrónica y de Comunicación; Gobierno de Navarra / Nafarroako Gobernua
In the last few years, the growing demand for electric vehicles (EVs) in the transportation sector has contributed to the increased use of electric rechargeable batteries. At present, lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries are the most commonly used in electric vehicles. Although once their storage capacity has dropped to below 80¿70% it is no longer possible to use these batteries in EVs, it is feasible to use them in second-life applications as stationary energy storage systems. The purpose of this study is to present an embedded system that allows a Nissan® LEAF Li-ion battery to communicate with an Ingecon® Sun Storage 1Play inverter, for control and monitoring purposes. The prototype was developed using an Arduino® microcontroller and a graphical user interface (GUI) on LabVIEW®. The experimental tests have allowed us to determine the feasibility of using Li-ion battery packs (BPs) coming from the automotive sector with an inverter with no need for a prior disassembly and rebuilding process. Furthermore, this research presents a programming and hardware methodology for the development of the embedded systems focused on second-life electric vehicle Li-ion batteries. One second-life battery pack coming from a Nissan® Leaf and aged under real driving conditions was integrated into a residential microgrid serving as an energy storage system (ESS).
Open Access
Inertial response and inertia emulation in DFIG and PMSG wind turbines: emulating inertia from a supercapacitor-based energy storage system
(IEEE, 2021) Sacristán Sillero, Javier; Goñi, Naiara; Berrueta Irigoyen, Alberto; López Taberna, Jesús; Rodríguez Rabadan, José Luis; Ursúa Rubio, Alfredo; Sanchis Gúrpide, Pablo; Ingeniaritza Elektrikoa, Elektronikoaren eta Telekomunikazio Ingeniaritzaren; Institute of Smart Cities - ISC; Ingeniería Eléctrica, Electrónica y de Comunicación; Universidad Pública de Navarra / Nafarroako Unibertsitate Publikoa
The increasing wind power penetration in electrical power systems results in a reduction of operative conventional power plants. These plants include synchronous generators directly connected to the grid. Facing a change in grid frequency, these generators inherently respond by varying their stored kinetic energy and their output power, which contributes to grid stability. Such a response is known as inertial response. Wind turbines (WTs) are mostly based on Doubly-Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) or Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator (PMSG) machines. Their power electronics interface decouples the electromechanical behaviour of the generator from the power grid, making their inertial response null or insignificant. Therefore, in order not to weaken the frequency response of the power system, WTs must be able to react to frequency variations by changing their output power, i.e., emulating an inertial response. Common techniques for inertia emulation in WTs rely on pitch control and stored kinetic energy variation. This contribution proposes a strategy (applicable for both DFIG and PMSG) which uses the energy stored in a supercapacitor connected to the back-to-back converter DC link to emulate the inertial response. Its performance is compared by simulation with aforementioned common techniques, showing ability to remove certain limitations.
Open Access
Methodology for comparative assessment of battery technologies: experimental design, modeling, performance indicators and validation with four technologies
(Elsevier, 2025-01-15) Irujo Izcue, Elisa; Berrueta Irigoyen, Alberto; Sanchis Gúrpide, Pablo; Ursúa Rubio, Alfredo; Ingeniería Eléctrica, Electrónica y de Comunicación; Ingeniaritza Elektrikoa, Elektronikoa eta Telekomunikazio Ingeniaritza; Institute of Smart Cities - ISC; Universidad Pública de Navarra / Nafarroako Unibertsitate Publikoa, PJUPNA2023-11380; Gobierno de Navarra / Nafarroako Gobernua
An increasing number of applications with diverse requirements incorporate various battery technologies. Selecting the most suitable battery technology becomes a tedious task as several aspects need to be taken into account. Two of the key aspects are the battery characteristics under temperature variations and their degradation. While numerous contributions using tailored assessment methods to evaluate both aspects for a particular application exist in the literature, a general methodology for analysis is necessary to enable a quantitative comparison between different technologies. We propose in this paper a novel methodology, based on performance indicators, to quantify the potential and limitations of a battery technology for diverse applications sharing a similar operational profile. A quantification of phenomena such as the influence of high and low temperatures on the battery, or the effect of cycling and state of charge on battery aging is obtained. In pursuit of these indicators, an experimental procedure and the fitting of aging model parameters that allow their calculation are proposed. As an additional outcome of this work, a general aging model that allows comprehensive analysis of aging behavior is developed and the trade-off between experimental time and accuracy is analyzed to find an optimal experimental time between 2 and 4 months, depending on the studied battery technology. Finally, the proposed methodology is applied to four battery technologies in order to show its potential in a real case-study.
Open Access
Experimental characterization and aging analysis of commercial 18650 sodium-ion cells
(IEEE, 2024-08-30) Irujo Izcue, Elisa; Berrueta Irigoyen, Alberto; Sanchis Gúrpide, Pablo; Ursúa Rubio, Alfredo; Ingeniería Eléctrica, Electrónica y de Comunicación; Ingeniaritza Elektrikoa, Elektronikoa eta Telekomunikazio Ingeniaritza; Institute of Smart Cities - ISC; Universidad Pública de Navarra / Nafarroako Unibertsitate Publikoa, PJUPNA2023-11380
Extensive use of lithium-ion batteries and scarcity of lithium are leading to re-emergence of sodium-ion batteries as a promising candidate, side-by-side with LIBs, to cover increasing demand of energy storage systems. Thus, development and commercialization of SIBs have been recently accelerated. Scientific research on first commercialized cells has been published regarding its fundamental parameters, aging and thermal performance. However, SIBs still require experimental study to continue developing and maturing their technology. For that reason, this work presents an electrical characterization and aging analysis of a commercial 1.3 Ah 18650 SIB. Based on experimental results obtained, this contribution reveals energy efficiencies of around 92% and an open circuit voltage with a plateau at a SOC of 35%. Regarding aging, samples full cycled at 0.5C exhibit a capacity loss of 15% after 310 cycles and stored cells age at a speed of 0.01 %/day.
Open Access
Identification of critical parameters for the design of energy management algorithms for Li-ion batteries operating in PV power plants
(IEEE, 2020) Berrueta Irigoyen, Alberto; Soto Cabria, Adrián; Marcos Álvarez, Javier; Parra Laita, Íñigo de la; Sanchis Gúrpide, Pablo; Ursúa Rubio, Alfredo; Ingeniaritza Elektrikoa, Elektronikoaren eta Telekomunikazio Ingeniaritzaren; Institute of Smart Cities - ISC; Ingeniería Eléctrica, Electrónica y de Comunicación; Universidad Pública de Navarra / Nafarroako Unibertsitate Publikoa, ReBMS PJUPNA1904; Gobierno de Navarra / Nafarroako Gobernua, 0011-1411-2018-000029 GERA
Lithium-ion batteries are gaining importance for a variety of applications due to their price decrease and characteristics improvement. For a proper use of such storage systems, an energy management algorithm (EMA) is required. A number of EMAs, with various characteristics, have been published recently, given the diverse nature of battery problems. The EMA of deterministic battery problems is usually based on an optimization algorithm. The selection of such an algorithm depends on a few problem characteristics, which need to be identified and closely analyzed. The aim of this article is to identify the critical optimization problem parameters that determine the most suitable EMA for a Li-ion battery. With this purpose, the starting point is a detailed model of a Li-ion battery. Three EMAs based on the algorithms used to face deterministic problems, namely dynamic, linear, and quadratic programming, are designed to optimize the energy dispatch of such a battery. Using real irradiation and power price data, the results of these EMAs are compared for various case studies. Given that none of the EMAs achieves the best results for all analyzed cases, the problem parameters that determine the most suitable algorithm are identified to be four, i.e., desired computation intensity, characteristics of the battery aging model, battery energy and power capabilities, and the number of optimization variables, which are determined by the number of energy storage systems, the length of the optimization problem, and the desired time step.
Open Access
Experimental evaluation of the safety performance of lithium-ion batteries based on abuse areas
(IEEE, 2024) Lalinde Sainz, Iñaki; Berrueta Irigoyen, Alberto; Valera, Juan José; Arza, Joseba; Sanchis Gúrpide, Pablo; Ursúa Rubio, Alfredo; Ingeniería Eléctrica, Electrónica y de Comunicación; Ingeniaritza Elektrikoa, Elektronikoa eta Telekomunikazio Ingeniaritza; Institute of Smart Cities - ISC; Gobierno de Navarra / Nafarroako Gobernua
Safety issues associated with lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) jeopardize their widespread adoption in both stationary applications and electric vehicles. One of the factors that can most affect the safety of a LIB is its chemistry. For this reason, this article aims to evaluate the safety of the two main current chemistries, LFP and NMC. In particular, the safety of both technologies is examined from the perspective of the areas of abuse that characterize their behavior beyond the safe operation area. A commercial 5 Ah pouch cell with LFP chemistry is subjected to various overtemperature and overcharge abuses at different conditions. The results obtained for LFP chemistry cell are discussed together with those for NMC cell from a previous work of the authors. Identification of the abuse areas allows for a comparative analysis of the safety of both chemistries, providing a valuable tool for classifying the abuse behavior of LIBs.
Open Access
Temperature indicators and overtemperature detection in lithium-ion batteries based on electrochemical impedance spectroscopy
(IEEE, 2023) Lalinde Sainz, Iñaki; Berrueta Irigoyen, Alberto; Soto Cabria, Adrián; Arza, Joseba; Sanchis Gúrpide, Pablo; Ursúa Rubio, Alfredo; Ingeniería Eléctrica, Electrónica y de Comunicación; Institute of Smart Cities - ISC; Ingeniaritza Elektrikoa, Elektronikoaren eta Telekomunikazio Ingeniaritzaren
Lithium-ion batteries are the leading technology for energy storage systems due to their attractive advantages. However, the safety of lithium-ion batteries is a major concern, as their operating conditions are limited in terms of temperature, voltage and state of charge. Therefore, it is important to monitor the conditions of lithium-ion batteries to guarantee safe operation. To this end, in the present work, we analyze electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) as a tool to estimate the temperature of batteries. Overtemperature abuse tests from 25 °C to 140 °C are performed at various states of charge, and EIS measurements are obtained during the tests. The influence of temperature on cell impedance at different frequencies is analyzed and new findings are revealed. The real part of the impedance is identified to be the best indicator for cell temperature estimation by EIS. In addition, the best frequency to achieve accurate temperature monitoring, avoiding disturbances produced by state of charge variations, is proposed based on experimental results. Finally, EIS is proven to be a reliable technique for overtemperature and thermal runaway detection.
Open Access
Building global competencies: a strategic approach to internationalization of engineering education
(Eindhoven University of Technology and Fontys University of Applied Sciences, 2023) Berrueta Irigoyen, Alberto; Samanes Pascual, Javier; Parra Laita, Íñigo de la; Goicoechea Fernández, Javier; Sanchis Gúrpide, Pablo; Ingeniería Eléctrica, Electrónica y de Comunicación; Institute of Smart Cities - ISC; Ingeniaritza Elektrikoa, Elektronikoaren eta Telekomunikazio Ingeniaritzaren; Universidad Pública de Navarra / Nafarroako Unibertsitate Publikoa
International mobility is an essential aspect of undergraduate education that enables students to acquire the necessary competences required by the European Higher Education Area (EHEA). However, small universities such as the Public University of Navarre (UPNA), which has approximately 9,000 bachelor's students, face challenges in providing effective mobility opportunities. The most significant hurdles include offering attractive mobility experiences to students and establishing mobility agreements with other universities. Nonetheless, the reduced size of UPNA provides some potential benefits, such as more personalized advice for students and better knowledge of the available destinations. This article discusses the internationalization strategy implemented by the Faculty of Industrial and ICT Engineering at UPNA, which has enabled over 25% of its students to participate in a mobility experience, resulting in a high satisfaction rate. This contribution provides valuable insights into how smaller universities can successfully offer international mobility programmes to their students.