Attention and processing speed tests: normative data for Spanish-speaking adults in the United States

Background: Hispanics/Latinos are the largest Spanish-speaking subgroup in the U.S. and multiple sociodemographic, cultural, and linguistic factors have been found to impact their performances on cognitive testing. Despite this, few normative data are available for the heterogeneous Spanish-speaking population in the U.S. Objective: to generate normative data on the TMT, Bells Test, SDMT, and the BTA for Spanish speakers residing in the U.S. Methods: the sample included 245 Spanish speaking individuals aged 18-80 from eight states across the U.S. (California, Connecticut, Florida, Indiana, New Jersey, Oregon, Virginia, and Wisconsin). Participants were administered attention and processing speed measures as part of a comprehensive neuropsychological battery. We used a Bayesian regression approach to estimate normative data, including covariates found to be important for predicting performances on measures of attention and processing speed. Results: sociodemographic factors including education, time in the U.S., acculturation, age, and/or sex had differential effects on the TMT-A, TMT-B, SDMT, and the BTA whereas the Bells Test was not influenced by any of these sociodemographic factors. Conclusions: our findings indicate that while sex, age, and educational attainment are important factors to consider, language and acculturation can also influence attention and processing speed performances among Spanish speakers in the U.S.